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by
Joanne Pompano
This curriculum will allow students:
This curriculum was developed for students in 4-6 grades who are attending regular and special education programs in the New Haven Public School system. In addition, this curriculum is adapted to assist visually impaired and blind students in accessing the materials and information necessary to work on this topic. It is hoped that the adaptations suggested will also help teachers understand how future science lessons can be modified for students with visual impairments.
- 1. to study the Moon in detail including the Moon's origin, geology, and landscape
- 2. to study the history of man's exploration of space including the voyages of the Apollo missions to the Moon
- 3. to provide opportunities for students to be active participants in a class project exploring the Moon
The classroom activities proposed will promote problem-solving, communication skills, and teamwork as well as scientific knowledge. It is believed that the knowledge and understanding gained from this project will assist students as they attempt to comprehend problems on a wider or global scale.
Earth's Satellite
Planets are usually much larger than their Moons and hundreds to thousands of times more massive. The Earth and its Moon, however, are an unusual duo since they are similar in size. The Moon is about 2,160 miles in diameter or approximately a quarter of the diameter of the Earth. The mass of the Moon is only about eighty-one times less than the Earth. Due to its size and composition, the Moon is sometimes classified as a terrestrial "planet" along with Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
There is no atmosphere on the Moon and no magnetic field, therefore, the Moon's surface is exposed directly to the solar wind. Therefore, its surface is not constantly being worn away by wind or rain erosion and probably hasn't changed except for the rare impact of meteorites in more recent times.
History of Moon:
Over the centuries, scientists have developed many theories on how the Moon was formed. However, prior to the study of the Apollo samples brought back from manned flights to the Moon, there was no consensus about its origin.
The Principal Theories:
- l. Co-accretion : This theory asserted that the Moon and the Earth formed at the same time from the Solar Nebula
- 2. Fission: This theory asserted that the Moon split off of the Earth and went into orbit
After studying the lunar rock and soil samples, scientists know that these theories are incorrect. Instead it is now widely believed that the Moon was formed around the same time as the Earth. Thus the impact theory was developed.
- 3. Capture: This theory held that the Moon formed in another part of the Solar System and was later captured by the gravitational pull of the Earth.
- 4. Impact Theory: New and detailed information from the Moon rocks led to the theory that when the Earth was young and developing it collided with a very large object . The core of this body became part of Earth while the lighter material shot into space and began orbiting around until it collected to form the Moon.
The Moon orbits Earth showing a different phase, or lighting condition on its surface, at various times of the month. Each month the Moon goes from anew Moon, to a crescent, through to a full Moon, and then back again. Since the Moon orbits the Earth about once a month, these phases were used in ancient times as a basis for a lunar calendar.
When the Moon is on the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, the side we see is all lit. This is known as the "full Moon." When it is on the side of Earth that is near the Sun, the lit side is away from us and we don't see the Moon. In between those periods, the Moon is partially lit.
The Earth is moving in its orbit around the Sun in the same direction as the Moon and so the time needed to return to the same position is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 2.8 seconds. This is known as the synodic month and is the time interval that elapses between two successive full Moons. Because the rotation period of the Moon and the revolution period around the Earth are the same, the Moon shows the same hemisphere (called the near side) to Earth at all times. Conversely, one hemisphere is forever turned away from us (the far side.) Before the space age, the "far side" of the Moon was unknown. In October l959, The Soviet
LUNAR 3 spacecraft was the first to map the far side of the Moon showing craters, mountains, and lunar seas.
On the other hand, sometimes, when the Moon is full and on the opposite side of Earth from the Sun, it passes through the earth's shadow. When the earth's shadow falls on the bright side of the Moon, it makes the moons surface dark. This is a lunar eclipse and may last several hours
It is easy to study the Moon's surface with the naked eye. Astronomers, long before modern times, have tried to understand the details they could view. Studying the moon's surface with the naked eye reveals both shadows and bright spots on the lunar surface. In 1609 an Italian scientist, Galileo, built a telescope to view objects in space and was able to see mountain ranges and craters on the Moon.
Terrain
The Moon's crust is an average of 68 km thick. Below the crust is a mantle and possibly a small core. The Moon's center of mass is offset from its geometric center by about 2 km in the direction toward the Earth. Also, the crust is thinner on the near side.
There are two primary types of terrain on the Moon: the very old, heavily-cratered highlands and the relatively smooth and younger maria. The maria comprises about 16% of the Moon's surface and is composed of huge impact craters that were later flooded by molten lava. Most of the surface is covered with regolith, a mixture of fine dust and rocky debris produced by meteor impacts.
Most of the craters on the near side are named for famous figures in the history of science such as Tycho, Copernicus, and Ptolemaeus. On the far side, craters are named for such figures as Apollo, Gagarin and Korolev.
The Moon also has huge craters on the South Pole such as Aitken which at 2250 km in diameter and 12 km deep is the largest impact basin in the solar system. Orientale, a multi-ring crater is located on the western limb.
The Moon provides evidence about the early history of the Solar System not available on the Earth. The Apollo and Lunar programs brought back to Earth a total of 382 kg of rock samples. These provide most of our detailed knowledge of the Moon. They are particularly valuable in that they can be dated. Most rocks on the surface of the Moon seem to be between 4.6 and 3 billion years old compared to the oldest terrestrial rocks which are rarely more than 3 billion years old.
The Moon has no global magnetic field. But some of its surface rocks exhibit remnant magnetism indicating that there may have been a global magnetic field early in the Moon's history.
Seas Without Water
Craters on the Moon were caused by meteorites bombarding the surface that occurred in early days of Moon. There are several dark patches on the surface of the Moon that astronomers thought were huge bodies of water. They include the Sea of Tranquillity, the Bay of Rainbows, and the Lake of Death.
Now scientists know that there is no water on the Moon and these areas are actually smooth, flat plains that formed ‹3.5 billion years ago when lava poured out from the interior of the Moon. This lava covered 15 percent of the lunar surface when it flowed into the lowlands.
Crater-Scarred Surfaces:
Most of these craters were formed when meteors rained down on the surface of the Moon. Few craters are found in the lowland indicating that the meteor impacts must have occurred before lava flowed from the moon's interior.
The bright area which covers the rest of the Moon have thousands of craters in the highlands. Some of the larger craters have mountainous edges or peaks that rise from their centers. They can be seen from the Earth without the aid of a telescope. The Moon has no atmosphere and so there is no wind or rain constantly eroding the surface. Due to lack of an atmosphere the Moon probably hasn't changed in billions of years except for the rare impact of meteorites. Therefore, the Moon provides evidence about the early history of the Solar System not available on the Earth. Samples of Moon rocks brought back to Earth help scientists look back billions of years to the early ages of the Solar System and provide information on how the Earth was formed.
In l959, the former Soviet Union sent a spacecraft past the Moon to take pictures of the far side of the Moon which had never been seen from Earth. Later in that year, Lunar 2, a Soviet probe landed on the Moon.
The attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union to land a manned spacecraft on the Moon resulted in a flurry of scientific activity as each country attempted to gain the necessary knowledge and develop the necessary technology to win that race.
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy set the target for America to reach the Moon by the end of the decade. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) created Project Gemini, a series of missions conducted close to Earth, to meet that challenge. The Apollo program followed setting the stage for landing astronauts on the Moon.
The Ranger, Orbiter, and Surveyor probes were the first US. spacecraft sent to the Moon. They were unmanned flights which helped to find possible landing sites for future manned flights
Apollo 8 was the first manned vehicle to orbit the Moon. Apollo 9 launched a command and service module and lunar module into Earth orbit These vehicles and equipment would be used during future lunar landings.
Apollo 10 was the final rehearsal before landing on the Moon. Astronauts separated the lunar module form the command and service module while they orbited the Moon. They flew to low altitude over the Sea of Tranquility and then re-docked successfully.
Apollo 11 lifted off the Kennedy Space Center on July 16, l969. Four days later, Apollo's lunar module touched down on the Sear of Tranquillity. Five more landings followed. The Apollo program cost $20 billion and employed a half a million people in some facet of the effort.
Aldrin reported the touchdown on to the lunar surface by announcing "Tranquility Base here. The Eagle has landed." The astronauts readied themselves for stepping on the Moon by putting on spacesuits and life support systems. And then Neil Armstrong passed through the hatchway and stepped down a ladder to the lunar surface. As Neil Armstrong placed his foot on the Moon's surface-- he spoke the words heard around the World, "That's one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind."
Armstrong and Aldrin spent four hours on the surface of the Moon planting a flag, setting up experiments, and placing a plaque to commemorate the occasion. They also collected 50 pounds of lunar soil and rock samples to bring back to Earth. The two astronauts then reboarded the Eagle and blasted off the Moon to successfully dock with Collins in the CSM. After an eight day mission they headed back to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean.
Five other missions landed on the Moon. In a later mission, astronauts used the lunar roving vehicle, a ten-foot-long cart that allowed them to explore more of the lunar surface. Apollo 17 was the last manned fight to the Moon.
The Apollo program was very expensive but provided many scientific gains. The entire Apollo program cost $20 billion. It allowed a dozen astronauts to explore over 60 miles of the lunar surface collecting 850 pounds of rock and soil. Over 30,000 photographs were taken. In addition, over a half million people were employed in some facet of the this effort.
This confirms earlier reports in November l996 by the Clementine probe that ice was present at the south pole of the Moon. The Lunar Prospector indicates that ice appears to be mixed in with the lunar regolith (surface rocks, soil, and dust) at low concentrations of 0.3 to 1 percent. The ice appears to be spread over 3,600 to 18,000 square miles of area near the north pole and 1,800 to 7,200 square miles around the south pole. It is estimated that the ice is distributed in a layer from 0.5 to 2 meters deep, giving an estimated total volume of ice of 11 to 1300 million tons although these models can be off considerably.
The Neutron spectrometer looks for so-called "slow neutrons" which result from collisions of normal "fast" neutrons with hydrogen atoms. A significant amount of hydrogen would indicate the existence of water.
The data from the first two months of orbit show a distinctive 3.4 percent signature over the north polar region and a 2.2 percent signature over the south pole. This is a strong indication that water is present in both these areas.
During the course of a lunar day, all regions of the Moon are exposed to sunlight. The temperature on the Moon in direct sunlight reaches about 395 degrees K or 250 degrees above zero F. Therefore, any ice exposed to sunlight for even a short time would be lost. The only possible way for ice to exist on the Moon would be in a permanently shadowed area.
The Clementine imaging experiment showed that such permanently shadowed areas do exist in the bottom of deep craters near the Moon's south pole. It appears that approximately 2300 to 5800 square miles of area around the south pole is permanently shadowed. The permanently shadowed area near the north pole appears on Clementine images to be considerably less, but the Lunar Prospector results show much larger water-bearing area at the north pole.
Much of the area around the south pole is within the South-Pole-Aitken Basin, a giant impact crater 1550 miles in diameter and 12 km deep at its lowest point. Many smaller craters also exist on the floor of this basin. Since they are down in this basin, the floors of many of these craters are never exposed to sunlight. Within these craters the temperatures would never rise above 280 degrees below zero F. Due to these temperatures any water ice at the bottom of the crater could probably exist for billions of years.
To scientists these finds are intriguing. However, deposits of ice on the Moon could have many practical aspects for future manned lunar exploration. There is no other source of water on the Moon, and shipping water to the moon for use by humans would be extremely expensive possibly $2,000 to $20,000 per kg.
The lunar water could also serve as a source of oxygen, another vital material not readily found on the Moon. Lunar water might also serve as a source of hydrogen which could be used as rocket fuel. Paul Spudis, one of the scientists who took part in the Clementine study, referred to the lunar ice deposits as possibly "the most valuable piece of real estate in the solar system." (1)
Clementine Mission
The Clementine mission suggested that small, frozen pockets of water ice (remnants of water-rich comet impacts) may be embedded unmelted in the permanently shadowed regions of the lunar crust. Although the pockets are thought to be small, the overall amount of water may be quite significant--one billion cubic meters, or an amount the size of Lake Erie.
The Lunar Prospector
Unmanned and manned missions have changed our knowledge of the Moon. Lunar Prospector used its Neutron Spectrometer and Gamma Ray Spectrometer to determine the bulk elemental composition of the Moon as well as to identify potential lunar resources, including water ice (in the permanently shadowed poles.)
Primary Elements
The lunar crust is composed of a variety of primary elements including: uranium, thorium, potassium, oxygen, silicon, magnesium, iron, titanium, calcium, aluminum and hydrogen. When bombarded by cosmic rays, each element bounces back into space its own radiation, in the form of gamma rays.
Some elements, such as uranium, thorium and potassium, are radioactive and emit gamma rays on their own However, regardless of what causes them, gamma rays for each element are all different from one another---each produce a unique spectral "signature" detectable by an instrument called a spectrometer.
Lunar Crystal Magnetism Using data obtained from both its Magnetometer and Electron reflectometer instruments, Lunar Prospector will correlate magnetic anomalies with lunar surface geology. By mapping global locations, strengths and orientations of lunar crystal magnetic fields, scientists can learn more about the relationship between such magnetic fields and the surface selenology.
Magnetic measurements can also supply information about the size and electrical conductivity of the lunar core---evidence that will help scientists better understand the Moon's origins.
Scientists think that such asymmetry of the lunar crust most likely accounts for the Moon's off-set center of mass. Crystal asymmetry may also explain difference in lunar terrain, such as the dominance of smooth rock (maria) and the near side of the Moon.
LEVEL: Grades 4-6
Form teams of 2 or more students
OBJECTIVES:
MATERIALS:
- l. To find specific craters and seas on the Moon
- 2. To observe or locate on maps various craters and note their similarities and differences
- 3. To locate various places astronauts landed on the Moon
- 4. To create a map of the Moon
l. Draw a large circle about 16-18 inches wide on poster board. This represents the Moon's surface. Students will place the cutouts of the seas and craters in their correct locations.
- Binoculars or a telescope
- Moon map
- Stand and hand-held magnifiers
- Photocopies of the Moon
- Observation form
- Pencil and clipboard
2. Draw from a model the Sea of Crises, Sea of Tranquillity, Sea of Serenity, Sea of Fertility, Sea of Nectar, Sea of Cold, Ocean of Storms, Sea of Rains, Sea of Moisture, Sea of Clouds, The "Known" Sea, Sea of Vapors, Bay of Billows. Use poster board and outline in bold-black felt pen.
3. Paste in correct locations.
4. Research areas of the Moon and report to class. Discuss the mountains, craters, lava-flooded basins, etc. that you read about.
5. Observe the Moon using binoculars or telescope, if possible. Visually impaired students can use clip-on a magnifier on their telescope or can team with a student who can verbalize observations.
OBJECTIVES:
MATERIALS:
- 1. To chart the phases of the Moon for a minimum of one month period
- 2. To discuss patterns observed in the phases observed
REQUIREMENTS: A clear view of lunar phases for a four week period after a new Moon is needed
- Binoculars (optional)
- Poster board
- Black paper
- Glue, scissors, foil, ruler
- Compass
- Clip-on magnifier
- Cardboard cutouts of Moon phases--first quarter, full moon, last quarter outlined in bold -lined black magic marker
- 1. Draw a chart with seven rows across and five columns down. Label one for every day of the week. Number the boxes of the grid from 1 - 29.
- 2. Record the Moon's appearance in boxes beginning with box 1. Continue to chart phases of the Moon every night possible. Label the phases--first quarter, full moon, last quarter.
- 4. Select the correct cutout that corresponds to phase of the Moon. Glue appropriate cutout in blank. Leave box blank if observation is not made. Continue this task for several week. How long before the Moon looks the same as in Box 1?
Note: The Moon's gravity is so weak that objects weigh only one-sixth their Earth weight when they are on the Moon.
EQUIPMENT:
Containers: (2 of each)
l. Select 2 identical items
- clear plastic milk containers
- plastic bag with raisins
- 2 cup of sugar
- Other foods from kitchen that can be easily divided into bags
2. Empty the contents of one item into its own separate container, then put a sixth back into the original packaging
3. Pick up the unaltered food. Compare the sixth-full package to feel how light things are on the Moon. To find how much you could lift on the Moon, multiply the heaviest weigh you can lift by six.
MATERIALS:
During the course of a month, the Moon can appear in different parts of the sky, during the day as well as the night. A moondial will help you find just where in the sky the Moon will be on any given night.
- Poster board
- Compass
- Scissors
- Ruler
- Pen
- Glue
- Newspaper
- Pushpins
- Foam core
PROCEDURE:
1. Draw a circle about 8 inches wide on poster board. Cut out the circle and draw another circle inside it with a 6 inch diameter. This will be the dial.
2. Divide the circle into 20 equal segments. Number them 0 to 29 working counterclockwise. Mark the Moon's phases in Boxes 0, 7, 15, and 23
3. Construct a wedge-shaped base from foam core, with a right angle at the top and the angle beneath it equal to you latitude.
4. Place the dial in the center of the base. Secure it using a pushpin in the center.
5. Find the Moon's phase from a newspaper, and put a mark in the corresponding box. In daytime, position the base outside so that the low end points north. Turn the dial so that Box 0 points at the Sun. The Moon lies in the direction from the center of the dial to your mark.
To derive maximum benefit from the science, visually impaired students will be presented with a multisensory approach to learning about the sciences. A multisensory approach allows students to acquire information from other sources of sensory input to compensate for reduced vision. Students will have direct access to objects, materials, and models, in order to gain knowledge and integrate information into concepts. Such a diverse and active teaching method can open new avenues for expression and creativity and serve to motive students by helping to stimulate interest and realize potential.
Teaching this population requires unique and individual strategies based on the students' needs, the project at hand, and the skills they possess (such as using computers with Braille or speech word processing programs, speed listening, etc.) that allow them to participate and gain understanding of the material.
There is an overwhelming amount of visual material used in teaching science. To complicate matters science courses often require the reading of charts, measurements, observation, and other tasks that are made more difficult without the benefit of sight. Also, blind and visually impaired students often have limited access to materials in a format that they can use effectively. Translations of books and other materials into Braille, large print or audio tapes are often difficult or impossible to obtain. They may include: textbooks, class notes, chalkboard lectures, videotapes, computers, journal articles, supplementary reading materials, and handouts.
The most effective science activities are those that include numerous tactile and auditory interactions, and extensive manipulation of equipment, materials, and organisms. Students need to explore concepts via tactile methods whenever possible and encouraged to relate to acquired skills and knowledge to her own sensory environment
Understanding science depends on the ability of the students to make observations and to quantify those observations. Visually handicapped do not learn effectively from distance visual observations. Instead they must have direct access to objects, materials, organism, procedures, and operations. This multi-sensory approach which integrates input from auditory, tactile, and olfactory, as well as, visual sources allows students to gain knowledge and integrate information into concepts.
To derive maximum benefit from the science visually impaired students must be presented with a multisensory approach that is diverse and active to compensate for reduced vision. This approach can help to open new avenues for expression and creativity and serve to motive students by helping to stimulate interest and realize potential.
Familiarize the student with the classroom, laboratory, equipment supplies, materials, field sites by allowing the student to explore these areas factually. A verbal description is also helpful.
Science lessons should be taught under uniform, diffuse lighting, with no glare, no shadows, and no strong back lighting. Contrast between objects and backgrounds should be bright rather than being pastel shades.
Each student should be encouraged to be involved in every step of lesson. It is important to that the visually impaired student to play an active not passive role in the team. For instance, they should not merely act as the recorder in experiments with sighted partners but should be encouraged to take part in each part of the activity.
The teacher of the visually impaired should assist the science teacher by explaining the types of objects and actions students are able to see and under what conditions. This vision specialist should provide specific examples relative to the individual, rather than merely interpret the clinical information about the degree of vision. In addition, other sensory losses should be noted such as reduced tactile sense in diabetic children. Teachers should be sensitive to each student's cognitive learning style and provide science experiences that match that style.
MATERIALS
Real objects, organisms, and materials for classroom and experiments need to be provided and should include sturdy objects and organisms of appropriate size for tactile examination.
Descriptions of visual activities and an alternative to chalkboard work, printed diagrams, photographs will allow the visually impaired to have the information they need to be a part of the class. For the low vision student clear, high contrast printed materials are necessary.
It may be necessary to acquire specialized tools, data recording materials and other materials such as Braille rulers, thermometers, and talking calculators, and scales. In addition, teacher-made materials such as organizational containers include common objects such as muffin tins or egg cartons to help structure the activity for the student. Often equipment and materials can be easily modified to assist the student in their work. For example, a physical stop fixed to a syringe so the plunger can be pulled out at preset measurements or tactile notches cut in the edges of the plunger of a syringe to determine a variety of volumes.
ADAPTATIONS
Some of the strategies suggested will assist some but not all visually impaired students. The student's background and training and the degree of the visual impairment are all factors in whether these strategies and suggestions will be helpful to any one individual with a visual impairment.
Students with vision impairments will need assistance in areas such as accessing instructional materials, taking notes, and tests. A means for the acquisition and recording of data must be provided in the mode most familiar and appropriate to the student. It is necessary to provide accessible description for pictures, graphics, or displays. Verbal descriptions of diagrams and photographs, demonstrations and visual observations of experimental outcomes are also required. Low vision students should be encouraged to incorporate the use of their vision whenever possible.
There is a wide selection of magnifying devices available including stand mounted and hand held models. These may be helpful of some students to assist them in reading or working with items or equipment that need to be observed
GUIDELINES FOR MODIFICATIONS
There are many adaptations in equipment and teaching procedures that are helpful in teaching science to blind and visually impaired. In addition, computers are playing an important role in enabling visually handicapped to study and work in science. The following guide may be helpful.
- 1. Spell new or technical words
- 2. Use enlarged directions or a 3D models
- 3. An overhead projector or closed circuit television can be used to show step-by-step instructions or to enlarge a text or manual. It is helpful to mask all the items except the one you are stressing at the moment
- 4. Provide Braille labels for colored objects used for identification in a lesson or experiment
- 5. Describe visual occurrences, visual media and directions of pertinent aspects that involve sight in detail
- 6. Use a sighted narrator or descriptive video to describe aspects of videos or laser disks
- 7. All pertinent visual occurrences or chalkboard writing should be described in detail even when a note taker is available
- 8. Lessons, class handouts or directions should be provided in Braille, enlarged print, or on tape
- 9. Tactile 3-D models, raised line drawings or thermoforms should be made available to supplement drawings or graphic
- 10. Use actual objects for three dimensional representations whenever possible
- 11. Raised line drawings can be used for temporary tactile presentations
- 12. Overhead projects, chalkboard talks, graphs or slides should not be avoided but must include more detailed in the -oral descriptions, supplemented with themoforms where appropriate
- 13. The student should be allowed to use a tape recorder to record lectures and class presentations
- 14. Handouts and assignments must be available in appropriate form: regular print, large print, Braille, cassette this will depend on students optimal mode of communication and training
- 15. A monocular may be useful for long range observations of chalkboard or demonstrations
- 16. Call student by name to gain attention
- 17. Use descriptive words. Provide specific directions. Avoid vague terms.
- 18. Describe pertinent visual occurrences of the learning activities in detail
- 19. Changes in assignments and meeting sites should be given verbally.
- 20.It is helpful to offer to read information in some situations
- 21. At times an auditory signal may be helpful where a visual signal normally is used
- 22. Use stable and non breakable materials
- 23.Containers and materials should be labeled in Braille and large print.
- 24.Use high contrast between material and work surfaces whenever possible
- 25. Be certain written materials are accessible to student including textbooks, journal articles, teacher handouts
- 26. Make use of Braille, audio tapes, large print and sighted readers
Additions suggestions for laboratory exercises include:
- 1. Teaming the student with a sighted student or providing a tutor to describe the activities and outcomes as they are observed.
- 2. A hot plate can be used instead of a Bunsen burner
- 3. A micro projector can be used to help a visually impaired student examine images from a microscope
- 4. Allow more time for laboratory activities
- 5. Describe and factually and spatially familiarize student with lab and equipment
- 6. Location of materials, supplies, equipment and how it is used. They should be kept in the places and a Braille or large print label should
- be used. Braille or large print tags can be used on containers
- 7. Overhead projector or opaque projector is helpful for some to show step-by-step instructions. A low vision closed circuit television can be used to magnify images up to 720 times.
- 8. Taking a trial run on the equipment will help the student to become familiar
- 9. Use tag shapes for showing relationships (such as distance comparison) buttons, or other markers on a "layout" board
- 10. Portable communication board can be used to provide auditory scanning of laboratory materials such as: pictographic symbols, letters or words. Obtain laboratory equipment that have adaptive outputs such as: a large screen, print materials, various audio output devices, Braille and large print translations of books prior to enrollment
- 11. Allow more time for laboratory activities
- 1. Provide handouts, safety information and assignments available in appropriate form including regular or large print, Braille, audio cassette.
- 2. Provide a detailed description and narration of objects seen in science centers, museums and field activities
- 3. Ask a classmate to act as a sighted guide
- 4. A laser cane or Mowatt sensor are electronic travel aid that can be helpful in assisting the student in unfamiliar surroundings
- 5. Provide a tape recorder for use by the student.
- 1. Tape record, computer, various Braille devices to assist in reading and note- taking
- 2. Use of appropriate lab and field strategies according to the nature of the research
- 3. Make arrangements for tactile examination if allowed by the museum or research center
- 1. Allow additional time for testing.
- 2. Testing should be present in a form that will be unbiased for visually impaired
- 3. The student may be able to help you understand which method is most accessible
- 4. Talking and large print display calculators should be available.
- 5. Record test questions on tape and allow students to record their answers on tape
- 6. The activity script, directions or readings can be taped
- 7. 3-D tactile models can be used
- 8. Modifications may be made or specialized equipment such as talking thermometers, talking scales, etc.
Tutors or volunteer readers or writers can assist student with tests, materials, research by reading materials for students.
The teacher of the visually impaired should arrange with Talking Book Service or Recording for the Blind for audio books to be produced of textbooks or other reading materials.
Science Access Project concentrates on accessibility of non-textual information including:
- 1. new and improved paradigms for tactile and audio-/visual information display
- 2. hardware for tactile information display
- 3. software that utilizes display-independent information and multi-modal access
- 1. The TRIANGLE program is able to display x-y graphics and bar-charts through tone displays. To display formatted text, tables and math equations a variety of speech enhancements and non-speech audio are used in TRIANGLE.
- 2. The Audio System for Technical Reading (AsTeR) is a reader program that presents scientific expressions compactly in speech and other audio. Audio formatting use a higher pitch for superscripts and lower pitch for subscripts. They also group symbols by changing tone or rate and by using strategic pauses. Different words may also be used depending on context
- 3. EmacSpeak is a self-voicing system that has expanded the accessibility of blind users to the UNIX operating systems
- 1. Swell paper is the only practical methods for making tactile graphic materials from computer applications. To do this a black image is transferred to this special paper. It is then passed through an infrared heater that makes the black areas swell. The images however are soft and not very pleasant to read. The process is also expensive at a cost of dollar plus per sheet to produce. Also the process is cumbersome.
- 2. A new embossing technology has been developed and patented by Oregon State University that produces a high-resolution tactile graphics (20 dots per inch) to be embossed on standard Braille paper and plastic media. It is able to produce smooth lines in vertical and horizontal directions. The company that purchased the license for this technique is working on a commercial embosser.
- 3. In 1997 a prototype personal embosser called TIGER was exhibited at the March of 1997 at the International Conference on Technology and Persons with Disabilities, in Los Angeles. TIGER automatically converts fonts to a user-selectable computer braille representation using Windows 95 and a printer driver.
Triangle allows a keyboard or any specialized device that emulate a keyboard to be used to provide input. The output is transmitted in several ways:
Triangle also can provide the user with visual, audible, and tactile output simultaneously.
- 1. Visually with text on the DOS screen
- 2. Audibly with the assistance of a screen-reading program, external voice synthesizer and PC speaker
- 3. Factually with use of a braille screen access program and external refreshable braille display
These programs are available free of charge through SAP. They require use of the Nomad tablet (American Printing House for Blind), the TRIANGLE Touch and Tell view, and audio/tactile viewing programs. They are designed to assist sighted people in making tactile graphic materials for blind users.
OBJECTIVE
This is a programs that implies editing bit-mapping graphics. It prints using a braille graphics printer. Users are able to make an electronic label file for viewing with the Triangle. Objectif is a Windows program that intrinsically requires some sight for its use.
Boxer was designed to make trees and flow charts that can be printed on a standard braille text printer. Boxer can be used by a blind person.
VRML VIEWER
It is important to assure that all electronic informational graphic is accessible. The VRML viewer is used in many world wide web applications and has been demonstrated to be fully accessible to graphics. For instance, the periodic table of chemical elements can be made accessible using a standard VRML browser that speaks object labels when you click either on-screen or on a tactile copy sitting on the external touch pad.
SCREEN
UNIX is an operating system originally used on mainframe computers. It now is also used on many stand-alone work stations in companies and universities. UNIX was accessible only through DOS machines used as terminals. This lack of direct access prevented blind and visually impaired users from working with this system. Now, however, SAP has developed a direct braille access to UNIX text applications.
Screen is a full-screen window manager. It multiplexes a physical terminal between several processes such as interactive shells. Braille additions have been added to Screen to allow the user to view these directly with the display without having to log in through a DOS machine.
TUTORS
Assistance from a paid tutor or volunteer can provide the following services:
- l. Reading texts, lecture notes and other documents
- 2. Production of braille and tactile educational materials
- 3. Typing and proofreading of term papers and assignments
- 4. Assisting with laboratory work
Koppeschaar, Carl, Moon Handbook, A 21st Century Travel Guide, Moon Publications Inc., 1995, Chico Calif
1) Stability of polar frosts in spherical bowl-shaped craters on the Moon, Mercury, and Mars, Ingersoll et al., Icarus, v. 100, p. 40, 1992
2) The behavior of volatiles on the lunar surface, Watson et al., Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 66, p. 3033, 1961
3) Ice in the lunar polar regions, Arnold, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 84, p. 5659, 1979
4) The Clementine bistatic radar experiment, Nozette et al., Science, v. 274, p. 1495, 1996
NSSDC, Mail Code 633, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771
Last Updated: 19 March 1998, DRW
Henbest, Nigel and Couper, Heather, How The Universe Works: 100 Ways Parents and Kids Can Share The Secrets of the Universe, The Reader’s Digest Association, Inc., Pleasantville, New Yor ek, l994
Jones, Brian and Gutelle, Andrew, Facts America Our Solar System ,SMITHMARK Publishers Inc, New York, NY, 1992.
Press, Old Saybrook, Ct., l994
(This book provides useful and interesting C projects for students interested in learning about astronomy.)
Contents of 1998 Volume VI | Directory of Volumes | Index | Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute
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